INTRODUCTION:

Blood is a liquid connective tissue. It is composed of Plasma and Cells. Plasma makes up 55% of total blood volume whereas Cells form 45% of total blood volume. This is called as Packed Cell Volume (PCV). Cells are of 3 kinds:

RBC 3or Erythrocytes

WBC or Leucocytes

Platelets or Thrombocytes

Blood forms 7% of total body weight.

Early in the twentieth century, a most important discovery was made in blood transfusion when Karl Landsteiner showed that by cross-testing one blood sample with another, some samples would mix successfully with no visual signs of reaction while others would react strongly, causing agglutination, which is a massive clumping of the red cells.

This agglutination was attributed to the presence of an antigen on the red cells and an antibody in the serum. By following up this observation, it was shown that two different red cell antigens exist, which are called antigen A and antigen B. Within the ABO groups, it is possible for the red cells to have either of these antigens on their surface, or both, or neither.

Cells that only have the A antigen are called group A. Those that only have the B antigen are called group B. Cells that have both the A and B antigen are called group AB. It is also possible for the cells to lack both of these antigens and, in such cases, the group is O.

In a similar way, two different antibodies exist in the serum. One, which reacts specifically with group A cells, causing them to agglutinate, is called anti-A. The other, which reacts specifically with group B cells in the same way, is called anti-B.

The presence of anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the serum differs according to the AB antigens present on the red cells:

Those with A antigen on the red cells (group A) have anti-B in the serum

Those with B antigen on the red cells (group B) have anti-A in the serum

Those with both A and B antigens on the red cells (group AB) do not have any anti-A or anti-B in the serum Those without A or B antigens on the red cells (group O) have both anti-A and anti-B in the serum.

Blood:

RBC/Erythrocytes:

RBC are Red Blood Corpuscles. They are biconcave and devoid of nucleus. Their size is 7.2 µ. RBC count in females is 4-4.5 million/cu.mm and in the males it is 5-5.5 million/cu.mm.

RBC have Haemoglobin (Hb) which help as oxygen carrier. Haemoglobin has 2 components- (a) Haem- 4%, (b) Globin (protein) - 96%. Haem is a metalloporphyrin having iron as Fe2 with 4 pyrrol rings surrounding it which carries 4 oxygen molecules thus forming Oxyhaemoglobin.

Hb in oxygenated condition in lungs/ arteries is red in colour whereas in de-oxygenated state it is blue in colour in the veins.

RBC:

WBC/Leucocytes:

White blood cells (WBC) are having count of 6000- 11,000/cu.mm of blood, called as Total Leucocytes Count (TLC). They help in defense mechanisms in the body. Their increase in count leads to blood cancer i.c. Leukemia.

They are of 2 kinds:

(a) Granulocytes and

(b) Agranulocytes. They are further divided as below Granulocytes- Neutrophils, Acidophils, Basophils.

Agranulocytes- Monocytes, Lymphocytes.

Granulocytes

Neutrophils: They are called as neutrophils as they take up a neutral stain i.e. Giemsa stain. Their count is 60-70% of the TLC. They are phagocytic in nature and kill microorganisms having a size of 10-12 μ.

Acidophils: They are stained by Eosin, an acidic dye. They are 2-4% of the TLC. They are non-phagocytic and produce some secretions against allergens. Their size is also 10-12 µ.

Basophils: They are stained by basic dye- Methylene Blue. Their size is 8-10 μ. They are 0.5-1% of TLC. They are non-phagocytic and produce some secretions against toxins.

Agranulocytes:

Monocytes:

They are largest of the WBC types. Their size is 16-18 μ. They are phagocytic and so called as 'macrophages'. Their count is 5-10% of TLC.

Lymphocytes:

Their count is 10-15% of TLC. They are of 2 kinds

T-cells- They form antibodies against pathogen or antigen, so the immunity imparted by them is called as 'Humoural' immunity.

B-cells-They secret certain substances like 'perforins' which directly destroy the genetic material of antigen and such immunity is called as 'Cell-Mediated Immunity'.

Platelets/Thrombocytes

Their count is 40,000- 1,00,000/cu.mm of blood. They have Thromboplastin which helps in blood clotting mechanisms. Their deficiency is called as 'purpura'.

Plasma

It has 3 proteins

Albumin- 70%

Globulin-20%

Fibrinogin- 10%.

Globulin protein has its 3 forms (a) Alpha (b) Beta and (c) Gamma. Gamma globulins are called as 'Imunoglobulins' or 'Antibodies' as they work for the immune system. They are of 5 kinds

a: (Alpha)

y: (Gamma)

μ: (Mu)

d: (Delta)

€: (Epsilon)

These antibodies work for the immune system of body. On the basis of their occurance IgM antibodies are related to Blood groups, whereas IgG antibodies which can cross the Placenta are related to Rh factor.

Antibodies

An antibody is a product of an immune response and will react with that antigen in some observable way. Antibodies are immunoglobulins (Ig) and are found in the gammaglobulin part of plasma proteins.

There are five categories of immunoglobulins:

IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE.

In this module, we shall concentrate on IgG and IgM.

Antibodies are proteins that are formed from amino-acid molecules held together by peptide bonds; these are referred to as amino-acid chains. The IgG antibody has only four of these chains: two of them are small and are referred to as 'light chains', while the two larger chains are referred to as 'heavy chains'. This antibody is, however, very small when compared with the IgM antibody which is made up of 10 light chains and 10 heavy chains.

An antigen is any substance that, when introduced into a body and recognized as foreign, will bring about an immune response. This might result in the production of an antibody that will react specifically with that antigen in some observable way.

Blood Groups

The ABO system has four blood groups determined by presence of two distinct antigens A and B on the surface of erythrocytes. These groups are also distinguished by the presence or absence of iso-antibodies in the serum. For e.g. Person with A blood group has anti-B antibody. Brief details of each Antibody is as follows:

IgG-It is the only Ab which can pass the placenta. its MW is 150,000 Da. Rh Ab's come under this class. It binds to microorganisms and enhances their phagocytosis. IgG antibodies make up approximately 73% of our total immune-globulins. They can readily cross the placenta and consequently are often associated with a condition known as haemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN). This can occur when maternal antibody crosses the placenta and attacks the fetal red cells which possess the corresponding antigen.

IgG antibodies do not cause agglutination of red cells containing their antigen when suspended in saline; they have the ability only to coat or sensitize them. The life span of the IgG immunoglobulin is approximately 60-70 days.

Immune blood group antibodies are usually IgG and are produced in response to a foreign red cell antigen. This can be the result of a blood transfusion or, in the case of a pregnant woman, a leak of blood from the fetus in her circulation

IgM-it constitutes 5-8% of immune-globulins and with MW of 900,000 Da and forms largest of all Ab's. Blood group antibodies come under this class. They are the 1" to give the initial immune response. It also helps in the neutralization of the toxins and viruses.

They readily agglutinate red cells suspended in saline and have a life span of only 10 days. The IgM antibody often activates complement during an antigen-antibody reaction and, as a result, will cause haemolysis of the red cells rather than agglutination.

agglutination: The clumping together of red cells. sensitized cell: A cell coated with antibody, but not agglutinated.

IgA- its found in all body secretions and so it is called as 'antibody paste'. They have MW of 160,000 Da. They also help in complement succession and promote phagocytosis.

IgD- Its occurrence is very low in blood serum and stimulate lymphocyte for recognition receptors of antigens. Its Mw is 180,000 Da.

IgE-It has very small serum concentration. Its MW is 190,000 Da. It is cheaply produced in the linings of respiratory and intestinal tract.

Distribution of Abo, Antigens and Antibodies

Blood Group	Antigen	Antibody
A	A	anti-B
B	B	anti-A
A and B	A and B	None
O	None	anti-A and anti-B

All of our features and characteristics are controlled by genes which exist as units of inheritance within the nuclei of our living body cells. These genes are carried on our chromosomes of which each cell contains 23 pairs, or 46 in total. We inherit one of each of these pairs from each parent.

Unlike nucleated body cells, our reproductive cells (spermatozoa and ova) possess only single chromosomes. On fertilization, these combine to re-form as pairs in the living cells of the embryo. Among our inherited characteristics there is a gene responsible for the specificity of our ABO blood group; in other words, we inherit two blood group genes. For the ABO blood groups, the chromosome from the mother carries one of A, B or O gene. Similarly, the other chromosome from the father carries one of A, B or O gene.

Two definitions are important as applied to blood groups: A genotype: the genes inherited from each parent's blood group which are present on the chromosomes.

A phenotype: the observable effect of the inherited genes: that is, the blood group itself.

The A and B genes are dominant over the O gene and the phenotype A can therefore arise from either the AO or the AA genotype. Similarly, the phenotype B can arise from either the BO or the BB genotype. Table 3 shows the possible combinations of genes and the blood groups they confer.

Red cells of all ABO groups possess a common antigen, the 'H antigen'. This is a precursor for the formation of A and B antigens. The amount of H antigen is related to ABO group of the cell, group O cells having the most and AB in the least amount. Bhende et al, 1952 reported it from Mumbai and so it is called 'Bombay phenotype'. Such individuals have anti-A, anti-B and anti-H antibodies, thus making their blood group incompatible with all other blood groups. For instance, if both the parents have AB and O blood group, children may have the occurrence of O blood group due to H antigen.

Levine and Stetson(1939) showed new type of antigen which was seen in Rhesus monkey. It was called as Rhesus or Rh factor. It is denoted as Rh+ve and Rh-ve. These blood groups form histo-compatible systems as they can cross placental barrier c.g. A Rh+ve father and Rh-ve mother. Such blood group can cause Erythroblastosis Foetalis condition.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn, also known as hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn, HDN, HDFN, or erythroblastosis fetalis is an all immune condition that develops in a fetus, when the IgG molecules (one of the five main types of antibodies) produced by the mother pass through the placenta. Among these antibodies are some which attack the red blood cells in the fetal circulation; the red cells are broken down and the fetus can develop reticulocytosis and anemia. This fetal disease ranges from mild to very severe, and fetal death from heart failure (hydrops fetalis) can occur. When the disease is moderate or severe, many erythroblasts are present in the fetal blood and so these forms of the disease

Observations: We observed 43 persons

Inference

BLOOD GROUP	NO.	%
A+	13	30.23
B+	17	39.05
AB+	1	2.32
O+	12	27.90
TOTAL		100

No. of respondent’s blood group wise

Behaviour Related to Blood Groups

Blood Group 'O':

These people have their objectives very clear and cannot stand people who hide truth. They have great strength and Endurance to reach their goal or aim, but they give up very easily if they find the job meaningless. Emotionally they are very stable and calm.

These people show sensitive nature towards Sincereity. They also give their frank opinions. They concentrate on work but their behaviour vary according to the kind of work. These people are good leaders and mostly prefer to lead. They prefer to get financial stability for future but they usually do not have regrets about their past even if they have a bad past.

Blood Group 'A':

They are too sensitive and pessimist. They take very careful decisions. They have an ability to make things clear in black and white. Their tolerance ability is very good and they can do the same kind of physical and repetitive work. They are not fond of changes and cannot take them easily. Emotionally they display cool outlook even though they are angry. If their heart is broken they take long time to heal also they are sensitive to others opinions.

A+ people are perfectionist and tend to accept one work at a time. They balance between work and personal affairs very nicely. These people are highly responsible with work. They usually tend to choose their hobbies which them to release stress. Usually they forget their past but are pessimistic about future.

Blood Group - B:

These people cannot take order easily, but take their decision very fast. They have high regard for scientific and practical findings. They go on doing work with interest till last but sometimes become impatient. B+ people are very expressive,they joke sometimes but are shy also. Their mood also changes like the weather. They are very creative and possess new ideas and usually do not bother about criticism. These people usually cannot differentiate between work and hobbies.

Blood Group - AB:

These people are and sentimental. They have good ability for analysis and give their fair criticism and views. They have fluctuating decisions about important issues. They usually try to be hard working but are happy go lucky type.

AB+ get upset at small problems and have mood swings also. They can handle a great number of jobs at a time as they have good ability. Sometimes they are not able to follow the project till its completion. They tend to be very artistic in their approach and remain more concerned with immediate problem than anything else.

REFERENCES:

1. Ananthanarayanan R., Panikkar Jayram, C. K. 2011. Textbook of microbiology. Orient Longman.

2. Goodmen, J. W. 2000. Immunogloubulins. California.

3. Roitt I. M. 2007. Essentials of Immunology. Oxford Blackwell.

4. Talwar G. P. 2001. Handbook of Practical immunology. Vikas publications. New Delhi.

Received on 05.07.2022 Modified on 23.08.2022

Research J. Science and Tech. 2023; 15(1):64-70.

DOI: 10.52711/2349-2988.2023.00012